by Michael Webster
Yellowstone National Park is the first and oldest national park in the world. It can be seen from space at 44 and 45 degrees north latitude and 110 and 111 degrees west longitude, most of the park is found in the state of Wyoming but also has portions in Idaho and Montana. The park covers 3,400 square miles (2.2 million acres or 850,000 hectares). It’s known for Old Faithful Geyser the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, and has been visited and loved by millions of people throughout the world. In the summer of 1988, however, the worst forest fires in the park's 116-year history consumed vegetation faster than even the more experienced fire fighters even thought possible (National Park Service, 1; Renkin, 37-38; Turner, 732; Finley-HolidayVideo).
The summer of 1988 turned out to be
the driest in the park's recorded history. By July 15, only 8,500 acres had
burned in the entire greater Yellowstone area. Still, due to continued dry
conditions, on July 21 by which time fire activity had become noticeable to park
visitors and to the national media the decision was made to suppress all fires.
But within a week, fires within the park alone encompassed more nearly 99,000
acres, and by the end of the month, dry fuels and high winds combined to make
the larger fires nearly uncontrollable. 
National
news reporters poured into Yellowstone National Park, as did firefighters from
around the country, bolstered by military recruits. On the worst single day,
August 20, 1988, tremendous winds pushed fire across more than 150,000 acres.
According to
Dr. Robert J. Ruhf the
amount of acreage that was consumed by fire is quite astonishing. Flames
engulfed a grand total of 1.4 million acres in and around Yellowstone, although
only 793,880 acres were actually within the park boundaries. This is an amazing
36% of the park! Attempts to extinguish the fires resulted in the largest fire
fighting effort ever. A total of 9,500 fire fighters came from all over the
country to participate in what would eventually become a $140 million dollar
effort. They built more than 800 miles of fire line, used 117 aircraft, brought
in more than 100 fire engines, and dropped more than 1,000,000 gallons of fire
retardant. In spite of this incredible effort, they failed to stop any of the
fires from running their course. In the end, it was only the fall rain and snow
that stopped the fires (Billings, 11).
Throughout August and early September,
some park roads and facilities were closed to the public, and residents of
nearby towns outside the park feared for their property and their lives.
Yellowstone's fire management policy was the topic of heated debate, from the
restaurants of park border towns to the halls of Congress. 
By September 11, 1988, the first snows of autumn had dampened the fires as
the nation's largest fire-fighting effort could not. The imminent danger to life
and property was over, and firefighters were gradually sent home, although the
last of the smoldering flames were not extinguished until November. Staff in
Yellowstone National Park went to work surveying the impacts of the fires on
wildlife, plants, historic structures, trails, and more and answering the
demands for information, explanation, and a new fire management policy.
A total of 248 fires started in greater Yellowstone in 1988; 50 of those were
in Yellowstone National Park its self. Despite widespread misconceptions that
all fires were initially allowed to burn, only 31 of the total were; 28 of these
began inside the park. In the end, 7 major fires were responsible for more than
95% of the burned acreage. Five of those fires were ignited outside the park,
and 3 of them were human-caused fires that firefighters attempted to control
from the beginning. More than 25,000 firefighters, as many as 9000 at one time,
attacked Yellowstone fires in 1988, at a total cost of about $120 million.
Thankfully, the fires killed no park visitors and no nearby residents. Outside
the park, two firefighters were killed, one by a falling tree and one while
piloting a plane transporting other personnel.
Ecosystemwide, about 1.2 million acres was scorched; 793,000 (about 36%) of
the park's 2,221,800 acres were burned. Sixty-seven structures were destroyed,
including 18 cabins used by employees and guests and one backcountry patrol
cabin in Yellowstone. Estimated property damage totaled more than $3 million.
About 665 miles of hand-cut fireline and 137 miles of bulldozer lines, including
32 miles in the park, needed some rehabilitation, along with the remnants of
fire camps and helicopter-landing spots. Surveys found that 345 dead elk (of an
estimated 40,000-50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison died in
greater Yellowstone as a direct result of the fires; 2 radio-collared grizzly
bears were missing and were presumed to have been killed, (although one turned
up alive and well several years later). Most of the animals that died were
trapped as fire quickly swept down two drainages, and were discovered when
biologists subsequently observed scavenging grizzlies, coyotes, and birds
feeding on the carcasses. A few small fish-kills occurred as a result of either
heated water or dropping fire retardant on the streams. Surveys revealed that
less than 1% of soils were heated enough to burn below-ground plant seeds and
roots.
Landscapes such as those seen in Yellowstone have long been shaped by fire and not just the cool, creeping ground fires often described as "good" for grass production. The natural history of fire in the park includes large-scale conflagrations sweeping across the park's vast volcanic plateaus, hot, wind-driven fires torching up the trunks to the crowns of the pine and fir trees at several hundred-year intervals.
Such wildfires occurred across much of the ecosystem in the 1700s. But that, of course, was prior to the arrival of European explorers, to the designation of the park, and the pattern established by its early caretakers to battle all blazes in the belief that fire suppression was good stewardship. Throughout much of the 20th century, park managers and visitors alike have continued to view fire as a destructive force, one to be mastered, or at least tempered to a tamer, more controlled entity. By the 1940s, ecologists recognized that fire was a primary agent of change in many ecosystems, including the arid mountainous western United States.
In the 1950s and 1960s, national parks and forests began to experiment with
controlled burns, and by the 1970s Yellowstone and other parks had instituted a
natural fire management plan to allow the process of lightning-caused fire to
continue influencing wildland succession.
Many of Yellowstone's plant species are
fire-adapted. Some (not all) of the lodgepole pines (Pinus contorta), which make
up nearly 80% of the park's extensive forests, have cones that are serotinous
sealed by resin until the intense heat of fire cracks the bonds and releases the
seeds inside. Fires may stimulate regeneration of sagebrush, aspen, and willows,
but the interactions between these plants and fire is complicated by other
influences such as grazing levels and climate. Though above-ground parts of
grasses and forbs are consumed by flames, the below-ground root systems
typically remain unharmed, and for a few years after fire these plants commonly
increase in productivity.
In the first sixteen years of Yellowstone's natural fire policy (1972-1987),
235 fires were allowed to burn 33,759 acres. Only 15 of those fires were larger
than 100 acres, and all of the fires were extinguished naturally. Public
response to the fires was good, and the program was considered a success. The
summers of 1982-1987 were wetter than average, which may have contributed to the
relatively low fire activity in those years.
A massive effort was funded by the U.S. Congress to restore damaged facilities
and to study the long-term ecological, social, and economic effects of the
Yellowstone fires. Although the tourist season was cut prematurely short by the
fires and associated firefighting activity, the feared abandonment of regional
visitors failed to materialize in 1989. The effects on many plants and animals
are still being studied, although in the short-term, most wildlife populations
showed no effect or rebounded quickly from the fiery summer. In the several
years following1988, ample precipitation combined with the short-term effects of
ash and nutrient influx to make for spectacular displays of wildflowers in
burned areas. And, where serotinous lodgepole pines were burned, seed densities
ranged from 50,000 to 1 million per acre, beginning a new cycle of forest growth
under the blackened canopy above.
Across the nation, national parks and forests suspended and updated their
fire management plans, assisted by the ecological assessment of a panel of
independent scientists and by revised national fire management policies. In
1992, Yellowstone National Park again had a wildland fire management plan, but
with stricter guidelines under which naturally occurring fires may be allowed to
burn. 
Although unprecedented in the 125-year history of the park, the scientists
reviewing the effects of the 1988 fires reminded us that fires of such scale
burned elsewhere in similar ecosystems during this century, and earlier in the
landscape's history.
The history of wildfire in Yellowstone is
long and varied. Even before written records of fire with the advent of
Yellowstone National Park in 1872 we see evidence of fire in soil profiles, lake
sediments, land slides, and in old-growth trees that have been scarred by fire.
It is clear that wildfire has had a role in the dynamics of Yellowstone's
ecosystems for thousands of years.
Although many fires were caused by human activities, most ignitions were
undoubtedly natural. The term "natural ignition" is nearly synonymous with a
lightning strike. Afternoon thunderstorms occur frequently in the Northern
Rockies but release little precipitation, a condition known as dry lightning.
In a typical season there are thousands of lightning strikes in Yellowstone.
Lightning strikes are powerful enough to rip strips of bark off of a tree in a
shower of sparks, and blow the pieces up to 30 meters (100') away. However most
lightning strikes never result in a wildfire because fuels are not in a
combustible state.
Fuels are typically wood, foliage or grass. Fuels may be fine, such as twigs
and needles, or heavy, such as logs, branches and whole trees that have blown
down in a storm. Fuels may also be living such as an understory layer of tree
regeneration or a layer of shrubs.
In order for an ignition to take place, the fuels must be dry. As spring
advances into summer, temperatures increase and the relative humidity
decreases-- factors which dry fuels.
On average in Yellowstone, fuels dry out enough to ignite the first wildland
fire of the year about the middle of June.
Young forests generally do not have the fuel load that mature and old-growth
forests do. Many young stands of trees are regenerating old burns and
consequently haven't had time to accumulate fuel. However, as a stand develops
it accumulates fuel: needle-cast, fallen branches, lichens, and logs. As the
young trees grow they compete for light and other resources. Many don't survive
the competition, and remain in the stand as standing dead snags which fall over
and further contribute to the fuels on the forest floor.
As trees grow they also "self-prune" old branches that become shaded by new
foliage at the top of the canopy. These pruned branches eventually fall off the
tree and accumulate as litter on the ground. As the stand grows older and
taller the canopy begins to break up, letting light reach the forest floor and
allowing the establishment of an understory layer of shrubs and regenerating
trees. This understory layer forms a "ladder" of fuel that may allow a ground
fire to ascend into the forest canopy. This accumulation of fuel on the forest
floor and the continuity of fuels between the ground, understory and overstory
are factors that predispose older stands to ignition by a lightning strike.
Nearly all of Yellowstone's plant communities have burned at one time or
another. Some plant communities ignite and carry fire more readily than
others. Therefore the "fire regime" of Yellowstone is as varied and complicated
as the environments within the park. It must be remembered that any forest will
burn provided an ignition during periods of prolonged drought, high
temperatures, low relativity humidity or high winds. However each type of
forest has certain characteristics that cause wildfires to behave differently.
Some trees such as Douglas-fir have very thick bark that insulates the tree
against heat. The bark protects the cambium (the water and nutrient conducting
system between the bark and the wood) which will die if it is exposed to
temperatures greater than 60°C (140°F) for longer than 1 minute (Agee 1993).
Thick bark ensures that wildfires seldom to kill mature Douglas-fir trees.
Other species such as lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, Engelmann spruce and
subalpine fir have thin bark but these species have other adaptations to fire.
Lodgepole pines have cones that are serotinous; that is, they are glued shut by
resin. The heat of a wildfire is needed to melt the resin and allow the cone to
open and disperse the seeds within. This adaptation ensures that the seeds of
lodgepole pine will not disperse until wildfire creates conditions that favor
the establishment of seedlings-- diminished litter on the forest floor and
plenty of sunlight.
Although whitebark pine, Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir are also
thin-barked, they are adapted to fire by escaping. That is, they grow in
habitats that are less susceptible to wildfire. Whitebark pines grow in open,
cold, high altitude habitats that accumulate fuel very slowly. The length of the
growing season between snowmelt and snowfall, and the cooler temperatures leave
a short seasonal window in which wildfires can ignite and carry. Engelmann
spruce and subalpine fir grow in cool, moist habitats where conditions that
enable wildfires to burn are infrequent.
Aspen also has thin bark and low tolerance to fire but it readily regenerates by
sprouting. Aspen clones are connected by a network of roots which survive even
very hot fires because they are insulated underground. Although the
above-ground stems may be killed by fire the roots send up a profusion of
sprouts in the following years.
Fire ecologists use estimates of fire return intervals to better understand the
role of fire in different forest types. Fire return intervals represent the
average frequency of fire for an area or plant community type on the landscape.
Natural, historical fire return intervals in Yellowstone range from 20-25 years
for shrub and grasslands in the Northern Range (Houston 1973) to 300 years or
more for lodgepole pine forests on the central plateau (Romme 1982, Romme and
Despain 1989) and subalpine whitebark pine stands.
Houston, D.B. 1973. Wildfires in Northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecology
54(5):
1111-1117.
Romme, W.H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of
Yellowstone
National Park. Ecological Monographs 52(2): 199-221.
Romme, W.H. and D.G. Despain. 1989. Historical perspective
on the Yellowstone Fires of
1988. Bioscience 39(10): 696-699.
Information , and text provided courtesy of Yellowstone National Park